Iron

Endpoint summary

Description of key information

Seven oral repeated dose studies (5 to 36 weeks) with carbonyl iron are available, which were largely focused on studying in rats the effects of iron overload as they are known from human pathological conditions and experiments with other iron species. Two inhalation studies (4 weeks, 6 h/day, 5 days/week) with rats are available in which carbonyl iron is compared with titanium dioxide. These studies yield the effects expected for poorly soluble particles in the rat on the alveolar macrophages, in cluding inflammation and increased cell proliferation.  

Key value for chemical safety assessment

Repeated dose toxicity: via oral route - systemic effects

Link to relevant study records

Reference

Endpoint:

sub-chronic toxicity: oral

Type of information:

experimental study

Adequacy of study:

weight of evidence

Reliability:

2 (reliable with restrictions)

Rationale for reliability incl. deficiencies:

other: Well-documented, acceptable for assessment.

Reason / purpose for cross-reference:

reference to same study

Reason / purpose for cross-reference:

reference to other study

Qualifier:

no guideline followed

Principles of method if other than guideline:

Feeding diets containing 35, 350, 3500 and 20000 µg Fe/g were fed to 11, 10, 10 and 18 male Sprague-Dawley rats, respectively, for 12 weeks. The effects on the histopathology of liver, pancreas, spleen and heart were examined.

GLP compliance:

not specified

Remarks:

Referance to GLP is not customary in publications.

Limit test:

no

Species:

rat

Strain:

Sprague-Dawley

Sex:

male

Details on test animals or test system and environmental conditions:

TEST ANIMALS
- Source: Bruce Spruce Farms, Inc., Altamont, NY
- Age at study initiation: weanling


- Housing: stainless stell cages, individually housed
- Diet: ad libitum
- Water: ad libitum (destilled, deionized)


ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
- Temperature (°C): controlled
- Photoperiod (hrs dark / hrs light):controlled

Route of administration:

oral: feed

Vehicle:

unchanged (no vehicle)

Details on oral exposure:

DIET PREPARATION
- Mixing appropriate amounts with (Type of food): AIN-76A diet (Dyets, Inc., Bethlehem, PA) which contained 200 g/kg casein, 3 g/kg DL-methionine, 150 g/kg cornstarch, 500 g/kg glucose, 50 g/kg fiber Celufil, 35 g/kg AIN-76 mineral mix, and 10 g/kg AIN-76 vitamin mix with 50 mg menadione/kg and 2 g choline bitartrate/kg.

Analytical verification of doses or concentrations:

not specified

Details on analytical verification of doses or concentrations:

no

Duration of treatment / exposure:

12 weeks

Frequency of treatment:

daily

Remarks:

Doses / Concentrations:
35 (control), 350, 3500 and 20000 µg Fe/g diet.
Basis:
nominal in diet

No. of animals per sex per dose:

11, 10, 10, 18 respectively (doses mentioned above)

Control animals:

yes, plain diet

Details on study design:

The animals were fed with the carbonyl Fe diet for 12 weeks. At end of the 12-week the animals were fasted for approximately 15 h, anesthetized by intramuscular injection of 5 mg of ketamine hydrocloride/ 100 g bw and decapitated.

Positive control:

no

Observations and examinations performed and frequency:

NONHEME IRON
Determined in livers and hearts by bathophenanthroline reaction.

LIPID PEROXIDATION
Liver lipid conjugated dienes were determined by a modified method of Watson et al., (1984).

IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL STAINING
Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded pancreas sections were also processed for in situ end-labelling of 3'-OH DNA strand breaks localized in apoptotic bodies using the ApopTag Detection Kit.

Sacrifice and pathology:

HISTOPATHOLOGY
A complete necropsy was performed on each animal and tissues were fixed in 10 % neutral buffered formalin.
One set of tissues were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and another set of tisssues with Perl's Prussian blue for Fe. The tissues examined were the following: liver, heart, spleen and pancreas.

Statistics:

1-way ANOVA, Scheffe multiple-comparison method, Pearson's product for determination of correlation coefficients.

Clinical signs:

effects observed, treatment-related

Description (incidence and severity):

No mortality was observed in the control and lowest dose group. For the two highest dose groups mortality rates were 20 % and 28 %, respectively.

Mortality:

mortality observed, treatment-related

Description (incidence):

No mortality was observed in the control and lowest dose group. For the two highest dose groups mortality rates were 20 % and 28 %, respectively.

Body weight and weight changes:

not specified

Food consumption and compound intake (if feeding study):

not specified

Food efficiency:

not specified

Water consumption and compound intake (if drinking water study):

not specified

Ophthalmological findings:

not examined

Haematological findings:

not specified

Clinical biochemistry findings:

not specified

Urinalysis findings:

not specified

Behaviour (functional findings):

not examined

Organ weight findings including organ / body weight ratios:

not examined

Gross pathological findings:

not specified

Histopathological findings: non-neoplastic:

effects observed, treatment-related

Histopathological findings: neoplastic:

effects observed, treatment-related

Details on results:

NON-HEME IRON
-Dose-related increase in liver in the rats fed with diets containing 3500 and 20000 µg Fe/g diet.
-Dose-related increase in the hearts of all groups.

LIPID PEROXIDATION (liver)
The measurements revealed significant increases in the livers of animals dosed with the two upper doses.

IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL STAINING (pancreas)
Nuclei and nuclear fragments, characteristic of apoptosis, were observed interspersed among the pancreatic tissues.

LIVER: hepatocellular hypertrophy in animals receiving the highest dose. Dose-related accumulation of cytoplasmic Fe-positive material within hepatocytes or intrasinusoidal cells.
HEART: the incidence of severity of cardiomyopathy increased with higher dietary concentrations of Fe (marked increase at the highest dose) and was characterized by a spectrum of lesions.
SPLEEN: hemosiderin was present in the sinusoidal macrophages of all animals, treated and untreated, but it increased with increasing dose of Fe (Prussian blue reaction). Splenic atrophy at the two upper doses (white pulp), characterized by a loss of cells (Table II, attachment).
PANCREAS: presence of apoptotic cells in animals fed with 350 µg Fe/g; pancreatic atrophy observed in animals fed with 3500 and 20000 µg Fe/g diets, associated with extensive loss of both endocrine and exocrine tissue.Difuse replacement of pancreatic tissue by adipose tissue with infiltration of the fibrovascular stroma by polymorphonuclear cells, macrophages and a small number of lymphocytes.

Critical effects observed:

not specified

Table 1: Dose calculated by the submitter based on the species-specific allometric equation for food consumption of US EPA (1988).

Average weight (g)	Food consumption (g/day)	Fe in diet	mg Fe/day	Dose (mg/kg bw)
44 (weanling)	9	350, 3500, 20000 µg Fe/g feed	3.15, 31.5, 180	71, 710, 4072
300 (after 12 weeks)	20	350, 3500, 20000 µg Fe/g feed	7,70, 400 mg Fe	26, 260, 1498

Conclusions:

The study provides information on the mechanism of toxic action of iron, in cases of overload.

Executive summary:

In a subchronic toxicity study feeding diets containing 35, 350, 3500 and 20000 µg Fe/g were fed to 11, 10, 10 and 18 male Sprague-Dawley rats, respectively. The treatment lasted 12 weeks. The findings revealed a direct correlation between increased liver nonheme Fe and lipid peroxidation measured by the lipid-conjugated diene assay. Histopathological examinations revealed hepatocellular hemosiderosis, myocardial degeneration and necrosis, splenic lymphoid atrophy and Fe deposition in the sinuisoidal macrophages, and pancreatic atrophy. The toxic effects include cellular apoptosis or necrosis in heart, spleen and pancreas and when coupled with the findings on lipid peroxidation, suggests that oxidative stress is involved in pathogenesis of lesions.

Endpoint conclusion

Endpoint conclusion:

adverse effect observed

Dose descriptor:

LOAEL

26 mg/kg bw/day

Study duration:

subchronic

Species:

rat

Quality of whole database:

See "Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf"

Repeated dose toxicity: inhalation - systemic effects

Link to relevant study records

Reference

Endpoint:

short-term repeated dose toxicity: inhalation

Type of information:

experimental study

Adequacy of study:

key study

Study period:

Before April 30, 1996

Reliability:

2 (reliable with restrictions)

Rationale for reliability incl. deficiencies:

other: see 'Remark'

Remarks:

As most publications, this one does not present all the details that are normally presented in a standard study report. However, a thorough and extensive study is described in the publication that gives valuable information on the repeated dose toxicity upon inhalation of the substance and can thus be used to address the requirement in question. Moreover, the publication is from a well-known peer-reviewed paper and the study was carried out by a laboratory with a good reputation. The most serious short coming is the limited number of endpoints investigated. The study was largely restricted to local effects in the respiratory tract, in particular inflammation, cell propliferation and effects on clearance.

Reason / purpose for cross-reference:

reference to same study

Qualifier:

no guideline followed

Principles of method if other than guideline:

Male rats were exposed by inhalation to carbonyl-iron particles or titanium dioxide particles by nose-only inhalation for 28 days, 6 h/day and 5 days/week.. The effects studied were limited to inflammation and cellular proliferation in the lungs as well as effects on clearance. Due to the limited number of endpoints studied it does not meet the standard guidelines for repeated-dose inhalation testing. Systemic toxicity was not covered at all.

GLP compliance:

not specified

Remarks:

It is not customary to refer to GLP in studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Limit test:

no

Species:

rat

Strain:

other: Crl:CDBR

Sex:

male

Details on test animals or test system and environmental conditions:

7-8 weeks old; from Charles River Breeding Laboraties, Kingston, NY. No further details provided. The experiment was ended 180 days after the end of exposure.

Route of administration:

inhalation: dust

Type of inhalation exposure:

nose only

Vehicle:

air

Remarks on MMAD:

MMAD / GSD: MMAD was determined during the exposure. The following average values were found: 3.4 µm, 3.2 µm and 2.9 µm for 5, 50 and 250 mg/m^3 (nominal) respectively.

Details on inhalation exposure:

The authors of the publication refer to Warheit et al., 1991 (Toxicology and Applied Toxicology 107: 350-368) for a description of the exposure methods. The section in question in that publication is reproduced below.

Animals were placed in cylindrical polycarbonate or stainless steel holders equipped with conical nose pieces. The restrainers were inserted into face plates on the exposure chambers such that the nose of each animal protruded into the chamber. Atmospheres of carbonyl iron … were generated with a K-tron bin feeder equipped with twin feed screws. The dust was metered into a polycarbonate transfer tube where high pressures of air swept the test material into the exposure chamber. Chamber concentrations of silica or iron were maintained by controlling the dust-feed rate into the generation apparatus, or by varying the air-flow rate. For gravimetric analysis, samples of atmospheric carbonyl iron … were taken from the animal breathing zone at approximately 30-min intervals by drawing calibrated volumes of chamber atmosphere through preweighed glass-fiber filters. Filters were weighed on a Cahn 26 automatic electrobalance. The atmospheric concentrations of iron … particles were determined from the filter weight differentials before and after sampling. Particle size measurements of airborne particles in the test chamber were determined with a Sierra cascade impactor and reported as the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) and the percentage of particles with less than a 10 µm aerodynamic diameter.

Analytical verification of doses or concentrations:

yes

Details on analytical verification of doses or concentrations:

See above under "Details on inhalation exposure"

Duration of treatment / exposure:

28 days, 5 days/week, 6 h/day

Frequency of treatment:

one exposure of 6 h per day. Five days with exposure were followed by two day without exposure.

Remarks:

Doses / Concentrations:
0, 4.8±2, 51.8±15 and 243.6±90 mg/m^3
Basis:
analytical conc.

No. of animals per sex per dose:

It is only stated that "Groups of male ... rats ... were used".

Control animals:

yes, sham-exposed

Details on study design:

- Dose selection rationale: no data
- Rationale for animal assignment (if not random): no data
- Rationale for selecting satellite groups: no data
- Post-exposure recovery period in satellite groups: Groups of rats were investigated for several endpoints 0, 7, 30, 90 and 180 days after termination of exposure.
- Section schedule rationale (if not random): no data

Because the study design differed in various aspects from the standard design of an inhalation study, the submitter reproduced the "Methods" section of the original publication below. The reader is referred to the original publication for the literature references.

"- General experimental design.

Groups of male Crl:CDBR rats (7-8 weeks old, Charles River Breeding Laboratories, Kingston, NY) were used to assess the pulmonary effects of 4-week inhalation exposures to high concentrations of titanium dioxide or carbonyl iron particles. Animals were exposed 6 hr/day, 5 days/week, for 4 weeks at concentrations of 5,50, or 250 mg/m3 Following exposures, the lungs of TiOz- and carbonyl iron¬exposed animals and aged-matched sham controls were subsequently evalu¬ated by bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis, BrdU cell labeling, lung clearance analysis, in vitro macrophage function, and histopathology at 0 hr, I week, and 1,3, and 6 months postexposure.

- Inorganic particulates.

Carbonyl iron powder (metallic iron; particle size range 0.2-2.0 µm) was purchased from the GAF Corp. (New York). Pigment-grade titanium dioxide particles (rutile type) were obtained from the DuPont Co. (Wilmington, DE). The mean diameters of individual parti¬cles is 0.25 µm but generally forms 1.0-µm agglomerates. Particles were heated to 200°C for 4 hr to eliminate the possibility of endotoxin contamina¬tion.

- Inhalation exposure and pulmonary lavage.

The methods utilized for aerosol generation of carbonyl iron and titanium dioxide particles have previously been reported (Warheit et al., 1991). Bronchoalveolar lavage procedures and biochemical assays on lavaged fluids were conducted according to methods previously described (Warheit et al., 1991).

- Macrophage cell culture and phagocytosis of iron or latex particles.

Alveolar macrophage cell culture and phagocytosis assay methods have previously been reported (Warheit et al., 1984a,b). For the phagocytic assay for TiOz-exposed macrophages, a suspension of carbonyl iron particles was incubated with normal rat serum for I hr at 40°C and sonicated to reduce aggregations of particles. The iron particles ranged in diameter from 0.4 to 2.0 µm. A final concentration of 1.75 mg/ml (mass per area in the culture dish = 204 µg/cm2) was added to monolayers. For the phagocytic assay for CI-exposed macrophages, a suspension of latex particles was similarly opsonized with serum. The latex particles ranged from 2 to 4 µm in diame¬ter. A similar mass concentration of latex particles (i.e., 1.75 mg/ml) was added to the monolayers.

- Chemotaxis of Ti02- or CI-exposed alveolar macrophages.

Alveolar macrophages were collected from TiOz-, CI-, or sham-exposed rats by lavage as described above. The chemotaxis assay was carried out as described previously using three concentrations (i.e., 1,5, and 10%) of zymosan-activated sera as the chemotactic stimulus (Warheit et al., 1984b, 1992).

- Lung dissection and tissue preparation.

The lungs of rats exposed to Ti02 and carbonyl iron particles for 4 weeks were prepared for light microscopy by airway infusion using methods previously reported (Warheit et al., 1984b, 1991). Analyses of lung and lymph node burdens were conducted by digesting tissue specimens in hydrofluoric acid and analyzing for titanium or iron, using the method of inductively coupled plasma (ICP-AES) spectroscopy.

- Pulmonary cell proliferation studies.

Pulmonary cell proliferation experiments were conducted according to methods previously described (Warheit et al., 1992). Statistics were carried out using a two-tailed Student t test on a Microsoft Excel software program (p < 0.05)."

Positive control:

No, however, carbonyl iron was compared with another particulate material, viz. titanium dioxide.

Observations and examinations performed and frequency:

See partly under "Details on study design".

- Presence of iron in the lungs;
- Particles in alveolar macrophages obtained by means of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL);
- Measures for inflammation in BAL;
- Lactate dehydrogenase and protein in BAL;
- Cell proliferation in lungs by means of BrdU labelling;
- Lung clearance;
- Translocation of particles to tracheobronchial lymph nodes;
- Functional responses of alveolar marcophages;
- Lung histopathology.

All examinations were determined immediately after exposure and 7, 30, 90 and 180 days post exposure on groups of rats.

Sacrifice and pathology:

See under "Observations and examinations performed and frequency".

Statistics:

Student t test

Clinical signs:

not examined

Mortality:

not examined

Body weight and weight changes:

not examined

Food consumption and compound intake (if feeding study):

not examined

Food efficiency:

not examined

Water consumption and compound intake (if drinking water study):

not examined

Ophthalmological findings:

not examined

Haematological findings:

not examined

Clinical biochemistry findings:

effects observed, treatment-related

Description (incidence and severity):

See below under "Details on results".

Urinalysis findings:

not examined

Behaviour (functional findings):

not examined

Organ weight findings including organ / body weight ratios:

not examined

Gross pathological findings:

not examined

Histopathological findings: non-neoplastic:

effects observed, treatment-related

Description (incidence and severity):

See below under "Details on results".

Histopathological findings: neoplastic:

effects observed, treatment-related

Description (incidence and severity):

See below under "Details on results".

Details on results:

The exposure to 250 mg/m^3 resulted in a iron lung burden of 2000 µg/g fixed lung tissue or 17 mg/lung. For a detailed presentation of other results, the reader is referred to the attached documents with reproduced figures and tables fron the original publication.

The observations made can be summarized as:

- Pulmonary inflammation;
- Enhanced proliferation of pulmonary cells;
- Impairment of particle clearance mechanisms;
- Deficits in in macrophage function;
- Macrophage aggregation.

No signs of inflammation or affected clearance were found at 5 mg/m^3, while these effects were found at 50 and 250 mg/m^3.

The detailed description in the publications of the histopathology is reproduced in slightly adapted form below, because it allows for a comparison between carbonyl iron with titanium dioxide at equal dose levels.

"Lesions in the respiratory system varied with exposure concentration and duration of postexposure recovery.
The lowest exposure concentration (5 mg/m3) produced only minimal effects. Particle-laden macrophages and a minimal diffuse increase in alveolar macrophages (histiocytosis) were evident at 0 days of recovery. The histiocytosis was no longer evident at 1 week postexposure. However, individual particle-laden macrophages could be found in very low num¬bers within air spaces and lymphoid tissue throughout the entire 6-month postexposure period.
The higher exposure concentrations (50 and 250 mg/m3) produced a wide spectrum of effects within the lung. Free granular pigment of TiO2 and CI were present on the mucosal surfaces of bronchioles and bronchi at 0 days of recovery. Particle-laden macrophages, found individually, were numerous throughout the air spaces at this same time period. Beginning at 1 week postexposure and persisting thereafter, many dense aggregates of particle-laden macrophages were within alveoli and alveolar ducts.
Cellular hypertrophy and hyperplasia were evident at alveolar wall and duct bifurcations that were adjacent to macrophage aggregates. Mucosal hypertrophy and hyperplasia were also observed within the bronchi and bronchioles.
While the type of lesions was similar in animals exposed to 50 and 250 mg/m3, there were significant differences in lesion severity. The number of pigment-laden macrophages found individually and in aggregates was much greater in animals exposed to the highest concentration, and consequently occupied a greater portion of the lung. Also, the severity of cellular hypertrophy and hyperplasia at alveoli and alveolar duct bifurcations was significantly greater in animals exposed to the highest concentration of TiO2 or CI particles. Thus, the cellular reaction and tissue injury was significantly greater in animals exposed to the highest concentration of particles.
The severity and character of the lesions changed with time. Free granular pigment was no longer apparent at 1 week postexposure in any concentration group. Particle-laden macrophages, found individually, decreased in number with time, but were evident in small numbers within the pulmonary air spaces throughout the entire 6-month recovery period. The numbers and size of the dense aggregates of macrophages within alveoli and alveolar ducts, increased during the first month postexposure but did not expand throughout the remaining 5-month postexposure period.
Minimal mucosal hypertrophy and hyperplasia in bronchi and bronchioles were evident at 1 month postexposure in the two highest concen¬tration groups. Focal cellular hypertrophy and hyperplasia were associated with aggregates of pigmented macrophages, and were evident at alveoli and alveolar duct bifurcations for the entire 6-month postexposure period in the two higher concentration groups. Pigmented macrophages could also be observed within pulmonary lymphoid tissue throughout this time period.
Exposure of animals to CI produced essentially the same type of lesions in comparison to TIO2 particles. However, the severity of lesions was less and mucosal hypertrophy and hyperplasia were not detected in bronchi and bronchioles of CI-exposed rats."

Critical effects observed:

not specified

See attached document with figures and tables.

Conclusions:

In a subacute inhalation study with carbonyl iron, rats showed a clear inflammatory reaction in the lungs, as well as affected clearance, increased cell proliferation, hypertrophy and hyperplasia at 50 and 250 mg/m^3. The NOAEC was 5 mg/m^3. No systemic endpoints were investigated.

Executive summary:

This executive summary starts with the abstract of the original publication.

This study was carried out to assess the time course of pulmonary clearance impairment and persistence of inflammation following high-dose inhalation exposures to titanium dioxide (Ti02) or carbonyl iron (CI) particles. Male rats were exposed to air, Ti02 or CI particles 6 hr/day, 5 days/week, for 4 weeks at concentrations of 5, 50, and 250 mg/m3 and evaluated at selected intervals through 6 months postexposure.

Indices of pulmonary inflammation as well as alveolar macrophage clearance functions (i.e., morphology, in vivo and in vitro phagocytosis, and chemotaxis), cell proliferation, and histopathology endpoints were measured at several postexposure time periods through 6 months. In addition, amounts of TiO2 or CI in lungs and tracheobronchial lymph nodes were measured to allow an evaluation of particle clearance and translocation patterns.

Four-week exposures to TiO2 or CI particles at concentrations of 250 mg/m3 resulted in lung burdens of 12 mg titanium and 17 mg iron, respectively, with particle retention half-times ranging from 68 days for 5 mg/m3 TiO2 to approximately 330 days for 250 mg/m3.

The impact of this TiO2 dust load and similar lung burdens of CI particles produced a sustained pulmonary inflammatory response measured through a period of 3-6 months postexposure concomitant with increases in BrdU cell labeling of terminal airway and pulmonary parenchymal cells. The impairment of particle clearance mechanisms was accounted for by deficits in in vitro phagocytic and chemotactic potential of alveolar macrophages recovered from the lungs of high-dose, TiO2 or CI-exposed rats. Free granular pigment (TiO2 or CI) was present on the hypertrophic mucosal surfaces of bronchioles and bronchi, and particleladen macrophages, found individually, were numerous throughout alveoli and within lymphoid tissues immediately after exposure.

Aggregates of particle-laden macrophages were present within alveoli and alveolar ducts from 1 week postexposure through the entire 6-month recovery period. Macrophage accumulations increased in size and number from 1 week through 1 month postexposure and then appeared to remain constant through the remaining 5-month postexposure period. Minimal cellular hyper- trophy and hyperplasia were evident at alveolar duct bifurcations adjacent to macrophage aggregates, and this effect was most prominent at 3 to 6 months postexposure.

The results of this study clearly demonstrate that exposure to high dust concentrations of two different innocuous particle types produced sustained pulmonary inflammation, enhanced proliferation of pulmonary cells, impairment of particle clearance, deficits in macrophage function, and the appearance of macrophage aggregates at sites of particle deposition. In addition, the mass deposition rate determination appears to be a less sensitive indicator of "overload" when compared to biomarkers of pulmonary toxicity, such as macrophage function and cellular inflammation and proliferation indices.

Value of the study

The difference between this study and a standard inhalation study is that is is solely focused on the effects the particles have on a number of enpoints in the respiratory tract. Systemic effects are not at all investigated, while the selection of effects studied is influenced by the fact that the authors were interested in dust overload and not so much in chemical factors of toxicity. The omission of systemic effects is not deemed a serious shortcoming in the present context, because is can be assumed that systemic exposure to metallic iron is negligible upon inhalation of particles consisting of this material, while secondary ingestion can only result in a limited exposure to absorbable iron salts in the stomach, which exposure is covered by the oral repeated dose studies summarized in this IUCLID-5 file. The concentration on dust overload is less serious than it seems, because the lungs have meticuously been investigated by means of histopathological techniques.

The value of this study should be judged against the well-known fact that rats are much more sensitive to dust overload than other organisms, including humans (see discussion in the endpoint summary). The study is in particular important in that it indicates whether or not carbonyl iron particles should be regarded as typical poorly soluble particles based on their effects and based on the comparison with another poorly soluble particle, viz. titanium dioxide.

NOAEC

The study yields a NOAEC for carbonyl iron of 5 mg/m^3, based on inflammation, affected clearance, increased cell proliferation and hypertrophy and hyperplasia at 50 mg/m^3 and 250 mg/m^3.

Endpoint conclusion

Endpoint conclusion:

adverse effect observed

Dose descriptor:

NOAEC

5 mg/m³

Study duration:

subacute

Species:

rat

Quality of whole database:

See "Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf"

Repeated dose toxicity: dermal - systemic effects

Endpoint conclusion

Endpoint conclusion:

no study available

Repeated dose toxicity: dermal - local effects

Endpoint conclusion

Endpoint conclusion:

no study available

Additional information

The relevant exposure routes in the context of REACH are skin contact and inhalation.

Oral

·      The available oral studies as well as the human data on the effects of fortification/supplementation are relevant because they can be used to assess the hazard of the secondary ingestion of iron particles cleared from the lungs.

·      Feeding studies with rats show that it is possible to induce iron overload in these animals with carbonyl iron.

·      These studies are specifically concerned with the effects of iron overload, which have also been observed in humans which are homozygous for haemochromatosis or are exposed to iron by an invasive route (transfusion).

·      The effects of iron overload are the result of iron being a transitional metal, participates in redox cycling and the production of oxidative species. Important target organs are the liver, the heart and the kidneys.

·      Although the studies do not include a number of endpoints normally investigated in standard oral repeated dose studies, this is not deemed a serious shortcoming, because they are aimed at the further elucidation of effects described for other iron species as well as pathological conditions in humans resulting in iron overload. It is therefore not expected that metallic iron causes effects in addition to the typical effects associated with iron overload.

·      Although high dose levels are used to induce iron overload in rats with carbonyl iron, an overall LOAEL of 26 mg/kg bw/day can be established for this experimental animal.

·      Because rats differ strongly from humans as regards the regulation of iron homeostasis, this LOAEL cannot be used as a starting point for the standard derivation of an oral DNEL.

.   The iron turn-over (intake needed to compensate for losses in relation to total iron store and body weight) in rats is at least a ten times higher in rats than in humans, which points to at least ten times higher systemic exposure. Rats are thus much more sensitive than humans.

.   A provisional extrapolation that compensates for the difference in iron turn-over in the rat would result in a DNEL for humans of 800 mg/day.

·      A human volunteer study shows that humans taking a daily dose of 1.8 gram of carbonyl iron do not show effects on liver function and haematology.

Inhalation

·      Two 28-day inhalation studies with rats are available which focus on local effects in the respiratory tract, in particular effects as inflammation and cell proliferation.

·      Concentrations of 5, 50 and 250 mg/m³were investigated. Clear-cut signs of inflammation and cell proliferation were observed at the highest dose levels. The same effects were found with titanium dioxide particles that were studied alongside carbonyl iron in the same studies.

·      The NOAEC in one study was 5 mg/m³and in the other 50 mg/m³.

·      Based on the literature on the effects of poorly soluble particles (PSPs), as well as the effects obtained with titanium dioxide in the same experiments, the effects observed for carbonyl iron can be explained as to be the sole result of them being poorly soluble particles (PSPs). This means that they can be regarded as impaired activity of alveolar macrophages and reduced alveolar clearance.

·      Because the rat is specifically sensitive to PSP effects, the results of these studies cannot be directly extrapolated to humans. They only signify the predominant PSP effect of carbonyl iron and the apparent absence of other local effects under the conditions of the study.

·      Based on the physico-chemical properties of the particles, direct systemic exposure to iron upon inhalation can be ruled out. The ingestion of particles cleared from the lungs can lead to a secondary exposure, the effects of which are sufficiently covered by oral studies and human data. Thus it can be concluded that the omission of “systemic” endpoints in the inhalation studies is not a serious shortcoming in the present context.

·      Based on the local effects particles can have in the respiratory tract and the physico-chemical properties of carbonyl iron, it is not expected that a longer duration would result in the detection of other effects, not solely determined by the PSP character of carbonyl iron. Thus it is not necessary to propose an additional inhalation study.

·      It is concluded that carbonyl iron should be regulated as a PSP (inert dust in REACH terminology) and that TLVs for PSPs should be used as a starting point for the derivation of a DNEL

. In ECHA Guidance document R8 from May 2008 it is stated that the Occupational Exposure Limits for general dust of 10 mg/m3 for the inhalable airborne fraction and 3 mg/m3 for the respirable airborne fraction used in many countries should be considered in combination with nature of the dust. It is further stated in the ECHA Guidance document that for non-soluble inert dusts if the derived DNEL for inhalation is above these dust limits, the general dust limits should apply for exposure scenarios with exposure to dust (see chapter 8.7.1, page 54 of ECHA guidance document R.8 from May 2008).

Dermal

·      In view of a lack of bioavailability and the long history of safe use it is not necessary to study the dermal repeated dose toxicity of metallic iron.

Justification for selection of repeated dose toxicity via oral route - systemic effects endpoint:
See "Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf"

Justification for selection of repeated dose toxicity inhalation - systemic effects endpoint:
See "Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf"

Repeated dose toxicity: via oral route - systemic effects (target organ) cardiovascular / hematological: heart; digestive: liver; digestive: pancreas

Repeated dose toxicity: inhalation - systemic effects (target organ) respiratory: lung

Justification for classification or non-classification

There is no reason to classify metallic iron for repeated-dose toxicity, notwithstanding the results obtained in the rat studies. Rats are very sensitive to iron overload and to particle overload (see attachment: Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf). Iron particles are expected to behave as poorly soluble particles when inhaled and should be regulated as such. Primary and secondary ingestion of iron particles will result in (partial) solubilization in the stomach and to partial absorption of the ions in the duodenum. This absorption is strictly regulated in humans so as to prevent iron overload. See Attachment for further clarification (Attachment to Endpoint Summary 7.5.pdf).